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How It Works - Telegraph Dating is a place where you can have fun getting to know like-minded people in a safe and secure environment. It's free to join, and within minutes of creating your profile, you'll be able to view your most compatible matches, browse people in your area and find out who likes you. It's quick and easy to join, so sign up today and have fun getting to meet new people.

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Online dating service

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Online dating ( OD ) or Internet dating is a personal introductory system whereby individuals can find and contact each other over the Internet to arrange a date. usually with the objective of developing a personal, romantic, or sexual relationship. Online dating services usually provide unmoderated matchmaking over the Internet. through the use of personal computers or cell phones. Users of an online dating service would usually provide personal information, to enable them to search the service provider's database for other individuals. Members use criteria other members set, such as age range, gender and location.

Online dating sites use market metaphors to match people. Match Metaphors are conceptual frameworks that allow individuals to make sense of new concepts by drawing upon familiar experiences and frame-works. This metaphor of the marketplace – a place where people go to “shop” for potential romantic partners and to “sell” themselves in hopes of creating a successful romantic relationship – is highlighted by the layout and functionality of online dating websites. The marketplace metaphor may also resonate with participants’ conceptual orientation towards the process of? nding a romantic partner. [ 1 ] Most sites allow members to upload photos or videos of themselves and browse the photos and videos of others. Sites may offer additional services, such as webcasts. online chat. telephone chat (VOIP ), and message boards. Some sites provide free registration, but may offer services which require a monthly fee. Other sites depend on advertising for their revenue. Some sites such as OKCupid, Plenty of Fish and Badoo are free and offer additional paid services in a freemium revenue model. [ 2 ]

Some sites are broad-based, with members coming from a variety of backgrounds looking for different types of relationships. Other sites are more specific, based on the type of members, interests, location, or relationship desired. A 2005 study of data collected by the Pew Internet & American Life Project found that individuals are more likely to use an online dating service if they use the internet for a greater amount of tasks and less likely to use such a service if they are trusting of others. [ 3 ]

The Inside Out Dating Guide 1 - How to end a relationship that isn’t working

InsideOut dating guide: in a new monthly series, our relationships expert, Sarah Abell, looks at dating issues and offers readers her practical advice. This month, she looks at how to end a relationship if it isn’t working.

First things first, you need to decide whether the relationship really is over or if what you are going through is just a little bump on the road to true love.

It can be a shock in any dating relationship when you have your first argument or notice a really annoying habit in your partner that you hadn’t seen before. The temptation can be to throw in the towel at the first sign of a problem but the reality is that all relationships take work. Even in the best relationships there will come a time when you need to recognise the differences between you, resolve conflict and face up to the fact that your partner isn’t perfect after all.

But what happens when the rose tinted glasses come off and you realise that you really don’t love (or even like) this person anymore? What if you can no longer see yourself in a long-term relationship with them? What if you can’t be yourself when you are with them? What if you have discovered that they are abusive, unkind, dishonest or unfaithful? In these cases, the time may well have come to end the relationship.

Ending a relationship is never easy. It helps to try to do it as soon as possible after you’ve made the decision, because delaying the inevitable can make things worse, as Sophie discovered.

“I had dated Charlie for three years, we were living together, he had moved cities to be with me and was very much a part of my family. We were very much in love but I had realised that I didn’t want to marry him, so decided I had to end our relationship. It was a few weeks before Christmas and I confided in my mother, who insisted that I had to wait until after Christmas to break up with Charlie as he was joining us on our family Christmas holiday. He has no family where we live, and she thought it would be just ‘too mean’.

How to Date an Indian (Advice for the Non-Indian)

A Jewish friend of mine remarked once, only half joking, that he believed Indians are the true Chosen People. With no offense to Moses, I had to agree. I lived in India for about three years and my husband (currently known as my husPad, thanks to his appropriating the iPad he "gave me," -- but that is another column) is from New Delhi, which, in addition to providing me with lots of Indian friends and in-laws, have given me a pretty good perspective on the desirability of the people from the world's largest democracy -- and how to woo them.

Before getting to "how," let's start with "why." There are obvious reasons one would want to date an Indian, such as how successful and professionally desirable they are. Indians dominate as engineers, doctors, lawyers, venture capitalists and entrepreneurs. They make up a large proportion of our graduate students -- just walk around the campuses of Harvard, Columbia or Stanford or and you will see these incredibly attractive brown people all over the place. Which leads to point number two. Indian people tend to be really good looking. According to Wikipedia*, "India holds the highest number of Miss World winners, only to be tied with Venezuela." (*That feels a little like citing The National Enquirer but I am going to go with it.)

Most Indians are innately gracious, social creatures; they highly value friends and family and have a calendar filled with various holidays and occasions to celebrate, which they typically do with gusto. Those endless jubilant dance numbers in Bollywood movies pretty much channel the Indian soul. Moreover, Indian men love to dance . If for no other reason other than you want someone to dance with you (or without you for that matter), date an Indian.

Ok, now that the stock for single Indians is up, you need to be on your game if you want to date one. If you are Indian, you can skip the rest of this post and spend the next four minutes savoring your desirability. If you are not Indian, keep reading to learn seven things that should ingratiate you with them. The first five have to do with Bollywood. Indians take Bollywood and their celebrities very seriously.

1. SRK. Two things you need to know about these initials. One, SRK is short hand for Shahrukh Khan, one of India's premiere Bollywood celebrities. Two, you must have an opinion about him. He is a polarizing figure. Indians either love him or hate him.

2. Favorite actor. If you are pinched for time, you can simply claim SRK is your favorite and move on. But, if you want to take some initiative, I highly recommend you familiarize yourself with some Bollywood actors and choose a favorite. Some safe, attractive possibilities: Salman Khan, Aamir Khan, Hrithik Roshan and Amitabh Bachchan. Kal Penn does not count.

3. Favorite actress. See above. You need to have a favorite. You could claim that it is Aishwarya Rai, who is familiar to most Americans, although you will then be suspect as Aishwarya, while extremely beautiful and successful, is a pain in the neck. She has a reputation for being a major diva. Better options: Rani Mukherjee or Kareena Kapoor.

4. Favorite Hindi movie. It should be obvious by now that you need to have a favorite Hindi movie. If you bust out something like, "Yea, I loved Kuch Kuch Hota Hai," you are very likely to get a second date. If not something straight out of the Kama Sutra. One strong recommendation: "3 Idiots". It's a newish film with crossover appeal. Major bonus points if you suggest seeing a Hindi movie together. Most major cities have theaters that screen Bollywood films otherwise you can easily stream one through Netflix, etc.

5. Bhangra. Bhangra is the percussion-heavy music that is featured in most Bollywood films. It has an irresistible beat that will motivate even the most dance-phobic types to hit the floor. Showing an appreciation for Bhangra will score you points. Finding a place that plays Bhangra music and going there together is sure to get you something straight from the Kama Sutra, especially if you exhibit the right dance moves, i. e. patting an imaginary dog while screwing in an imaginary light bulb.

6. Food. Indians love their food. Probably more than they love dancing. Unless you are willing to take some serious initiative in the kitchen, plan to go out for an Indian meal. Although this can be tricky. Many Indians would agree that it is often tough to find a good Indian restaurant, even in major cities. If you want to be adventurous and score some points, I suggest you try cooking him/her a few Indian dishes. You can get the basic spices in most grocery stores. I'm happy to share a dal recipe that is unbelievably tasty. (Really, it is called "Mrs. B's Magic Dal.")

7. Language. Indians love when you speak their language. (Note: there are hundreds of languages spoken in India. Aside from English, Hindi is the most prevalent but not all Indians speak Hindi so you might have to determine his/her native tongue.) Before we got together, Sanjay was greatly amused by my reciting various things in Hindi to him. I got a tourist book and told him among other things, that I was missing my green socks. Now there are several iPhone apps that will give you translations. I suggest you pick up a few and break them out at an appropriate time, probably somewhere well into the second date. You don't want your date to think that if things go south, you will resort to stalking.

Good luck and let me know how these suggestions work out. I hope Laxmi, Goddess of Prosperity, smiles on you as you endeavor to date one of her people.

Oh yea, I almost forgot to mention: one more big bonus when it comes to dating an Indian: communication with cabbies. Think I'm kidding? New Yorkers: Just imagine if you could stop a taxi during the 4pm transition time and your date could say, in Hindi, "Hey brother, will you please take us to Spring and 6th?" You'd find Laxmi did indeed smile upon you.

Radiocarbon dating

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Radiocarbon dating is a method of determining the age of an object by using the properties of radiocarbon. a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was invented by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists. It depends on the fact that radiocarbon, often abbreviated as 14

C. is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. This is then incorporated into plants by photosynthesis. and animals acquire 14

C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and from that point the amount of 14

C it contains begins to reduce as the 14

C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14

C in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as piece of old wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The oldest dates that can be reliably measured by radiocarbon dating are around 50,000 years ago, though special preparation methods occasionally permit dating of older samples.

While the idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, years of additional work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been going on since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14

C in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's actual calendar age. In addition to this curve, other corrections must be made to account for different proportions of 14

C in different types of organism (fractionation) and different 14

C levels in different parts of the biosphere (reservoir effects).

Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices, so called because they counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying 14

C atoms in a sample. More recently, accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice; it can be used with much smaller samples (as small as individual plant seeds), and gives results much more quickly.

The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than did methods previously in use, it also allows comparison of dates of events across great distances. Histories of archaeology often refer to the early impact of the new method as the “radiocarbon revolution”. Occasionally, the method is used for items of popular interest such as the Shroud of Turin. which is claimed to show an image of the body of Jesus Christ. A sample of linen from the shroud was tested in 1988 and found to date from the 1200s or 1300s, casting doubt on its authenticity.

Contents

Background [ edit ]

History [ edit ]

In the early 1930s Willard Libby was a chemistry student at the University of Berkeley. receiving his Ph. D. in 1933. He remained there as an instructor until the end of the decade. In 1939 the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley began experiments to determine if any of the elements common in organic matter had isotopes with half-lives long enough to be of value in biomedical research. It was soon discovered that 14

C 's half-life was far longer than had been previously thought, and in 1940 this was followed by proof that the interaction of slow neutrons with 14

N was the main pathway by which 14

C was created. It had previously been thought 14

C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with 13

C. At about this time Libby read a paper by W. E. Danforth and S. A. Korff, published in 1939, which predicted the creation of 14

C in the atmosphere by neutrons from cosmic rays which had been slowed down by collisions with molecules of atmospheric gas. It was this paper that first gave Libby the idea that radiocarbon dating might be possible. [ 1 ]

In 1945, Libby moved to the University of Chicago. He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14

C as well as non-radioactive carbon. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Libby and several collaborators proceeded to experiment with methane collected from sewage works in Baltimore, and after isotopically enriching their samples they were able to demonstrate that they contained radioactive 14

C. By contrast, methane created from petroleum had no radiocarbon activity. The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, and the authors commented that their results implied it would be possible to date materials containing carbon of organic origin. [ 2 ] [ 4 ]

Libby and James Arnold proceeded to experiment with samples of wood of known age. For example, two wood samples taken from the tombs of two Egyptian kings, Zoser and Sneferu. independently dated to 2625 BC plus or minus 75 years, were dated by radiocarbon measurement to an average of 2800 BC plus or minus 250 years. These results were published in Science in 1949. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] In 1960, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work. [ 2 ]

Physical and chemical details [ edit ]

In nature, carbon exists as two stable, nonradioactive isotopes. carbon-12 ( 12

C ), and a radioactive isotope, carbon-14 ( 14

C ), also known as "radiocarbon". The half-life of 14

C (the time it takes for half of a given amount of 14

C to decay ) is about 5,730 years, so its concentration in the atmosphere might be expected to reduce over thousands of years. However, 14

C is constantly being produced in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere by cosmic rays. which generate neutrons that in turn create 14

C when they strike nitrogen-14 ( 14

N ) atoms. [ 2 ] The 14

C creation process is described by the following nuclear reaction :

Once produced, the 14

C quickly combines with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide ( CO

2 ). Carbon dioxide produced in this way diffuses in the atmosphere, is dissolved in the ocean, and is taken up by plants via photosynthesis. Animals eat the plants, and ultimately the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the biosphere. The ratio of 14

Principles [ edit ]

During its life, a plant or animal is exchanging carbon with its surroundings, so the carbon it contains will have the same proportion of 14

C as the biosphere and the carbon exchange reservoir. Once it dies, it ceases to acquire 14

C. but the 14

C within its biological material at that time will continue to decay, and so the ratio of 14

C to 12

C in its remains will gradually reduce. Because 14

C decays at a known rate, the proportion of radiocarbon can be used to determine how long it has been since a given sample stopped exchanging carbon—the older the sample, the less 14

C will be left. [ 8 ]

The equation governing the decay of a radioactive isotope is: [ 2 ]

where N 0 is the number of atoms of the isotope in the original sample (at time t = 0, when the organism from which the sample was taken died), and N is the number of atoms left after time t . [ 2 ] ? is a constant that depends on the particular isotope; for a given isotope it is equal to the reciprocal of the mean-life — i. e. the average or expected time a given atom will survive before undergoing radioactive decay. [ 2 ] The mean-life, denoted by ? . of 14

C is 8,267 years, so the equation above can be rewritten as: [ 11 ]

The sample is assumed to have originally had the same 14

C / 12

C ratio as the ratio in the biosphere, and since the size of the sample is known, the total number of atoms in the sample can be calculated, yielding N 0 . the number of 14

C atoms in the original sample. Measurement of N . the number of 14

C atoms currently in the sample, allows the calculation of t . the age of the sample, using the equation above. [ 8 ]

The half-life of a radioactive isotope (the time it takes for half of the sample to decay, usually denoted by t 1/2 ) is a more familiar concept than the mean-life, so although the equations above are expressed in terms of the mean-life, it is more usual to quote the value of 14

C 's half-life than its mean-life. [ note 1 ] The currently accepted value for the half-life of 14

C is 5,730 years. [ 2 ] This means that after 5,730 years, only half of the initial 14

C will have remained; a quarter will have remained after 11,460 years; an eighth after 17,190 years; and so on.

The above calculations make several assumptions, such as that the level of 14

C in the biosphere has remained constant over time. [ 2 ] In fact, the level of 14

C in the biosphere has varied significantly and as a result the values provided by the equation above have to be corrected by using data from other sources in the form of a calibration curve, which is described in more detail below. [ 12 ] For over a decade after Libby's initial work, the accepted value of the half-life for 14

C was 5,568 years; this was improved in the early 1960s to 5,730 years, which meant that many calculated dates in published papers were now incorrect (the error is about 3%). However, it is possible to incorporate a correction for the half-life value into the calibration curve, and so it has become standard practice to quote measured radiocarbon dates in "radiocarbon years", meaning that the dates are calculated using Libby's half-life value and have not been calibrated. [ 13 ] [ note 2 ] This approach has the advantage of maintaining consistency with the early papers, and also avoids the risk of a double correction for the Libby half-life value. [ 15 ]

Carbon exchange reservoir [ edit ]

Simplified version of the carbon exchange reservoir, showing proportions of carbon and relative activity of the 14

The different elements of the carbon exchange reservoir vary in how much carbon they store, and in how long it takes for the 14

C generated by cosmic rays to fully mix with them. [ 2 ] The atmosphere, which is where 14

C is generated, contains about 1.9% of the total carbon in the reservoirs, and the 14

C it contains mixes in less than seven years. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The ratio of 14

C to 12

C in the atmosphere is taken as the baseline for the other reservoirs: if another reservoir has a lower ratio of 14

C to 12

C. it indicates that the carbon is older and hence that some of the 14

C has decayed. [ 12 ] The ocean surface is an example: it contains 2.4% of the carbon in the exchange reservoir, [ 16 ] but there is only about 95% as much 14

C as would be expected if the ratio were the same as in the atmosphere. [ 2 ] The time it takes for carbon from the atmosphere to mix with the surface ocean is only a few years, [ 18 ] but the surface waters also receive water from the deep ocean, which has over 90% of the carbon in the reservoir. [ 12 ] Water in the deep ocean takes about 1,000 years to circulate back through surface waters, and so the surface waters contain a combination of older water, with depleted 14

C. and water recently at the surface, with 14

C in equilibrium with the atmosphere. [ 12 ]

Creatures living at the ocean surface have the same 14

C ratios as the water they live in, and as a result of the reduced 14

C / 12

C ratio, the radiocarbon age of marine life is typically about 400 years. [ 19 ] [ note 4 ] Organisms on land, however, are in closer equilibrium with the atmosphere and have the same 14

C / 12

C ratio as the atmosphere. [ 2 ] These organisms contain about 1.3% of the carbon in the reservoir; sea organisms have a mass of less than 1% of those on land and are not shown on the diagram. [ 16 ] Accumulated dead organic matter, of both plants and animals, exceeds the mass of the biosphere by a factor of nearly 3, and since this matter is no longer exchanging carbon with its environment, it has a 14

C / 12

Dating considerations [ edit ]

The variation in the 14

C / 12

C ratio in different parts of the carbon exchange reservoir means that a straightforward calculation of the age of a sample based on the amount of 14

C it contains will often give an incorrect result. There are several other possible sources of error that need to be considered. The errors are of four general types:

variations in the 14

C / 12

C ratio in the atmosphere, both geographically and over time;

isotopic fractionation;

variations in the 14

C / 12

C ratio in different parts of the reservoir;

contamination.

Atmospheric variation [ edit ]

In the early years of using the technique, it was understood that it depended on the atmospheric 14

C / 12

C ratio having remained the same over the preceding few thousand years. To verify the accuracy of the method, several artefacts that were datable by other techniques were tested; the results of the testing were in reasonable agreement with the true ages of the objects. However, in 1958, Hessel de Vries was able to demonstrate that the 14

C / 12

C ratio had changed over time by testing wood samples of known ages and showing there was a significant deviation from the expected ratio. This discrepancy, often called the de Vries effect, was resolved by the study of tree rings. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Comparison of overlapping series of tree rings allowed the construction of a continuous sequence of tree-ring data that spanned 8,000 years. [ 20 ] (Since that time the tree-ring data series has been extended to 13,900 years.) [ 22 ] Carbon-dating the wood from the tree rings themselves provided the check needed on the atmospheric 14

C / 12

C ratio: with a sample of known date, and a measurement of the value of N (the number of atoms of 14

C remaining in the sample), the carbon-dating equation allows the calculation of N 0 – the number of atoms of 14

C in the sample at the time the tree ring was formed – and hence the 14

C / 12

C ratio in the atmosphere at that time. [ 20 ] Armed with the results of carbon-dating the tree rings, it became possible to construct calibration curves designed to correct the errors caused by the variation over time in the 14

C / 12

C ratio. [ 23 ] These curves are described in more detail below .

Atmospheric 14

C. New Zealand [ 24 ] and Austria. [ 25 ] The New Zealand curve is representative of the Southern Hemisphere; the Austrian curve is representative of the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of 14

C in the Northern Hemisphere. [ 9 ] The date that the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) went into effect is marked on the graph.

Coal and oil began to be burned in large quantities during the 1800s. Both coal and oil are sufficiently old that they contain little detectable 14

C and, as a result, the CO

2 released substantially diluted the atmospheric 14

C / 12

C ratio. Dating an object from the early 20th century hence gives an apparent date older than the true date. For the same reason, 14

C concentrations in the neighbourhood of large cities are lower than the atmospheric average. This fossil fuel effect (also known as the Suess effect, after Hans Suess. who first reported it in 1955) would only amount to a reduction of 0.2% in 14

C activity if the additional carbon from fossil fuels were distributed throughout the carbon exchange reservoir, but because of the long delay in mixing with the deep ocean, the actual effect is a 3% reduction. [ 20 ] [ 26 ]

A much larger effect comes from above-ground nuclear testing, which released large numbers of neutrons and created 14

C. From about 1950 until 1963, when atmospheric nuclear testing was banned, it is estimated that several tonnes of 14

C were created. If all this extra 14

C had immediately been spread across the entire carbon exchange reservoir, it would have led to an increase in the 14

C / 12

C ratio of only a few per cent, but the immediate effect was to almost double the amount of 14

C in the atmosphere, with the peak level occurring in about 1965. The level has since dropped, as the "bomb carbon" (as it is sometimes called) percolates into the rest of the reservoir. [ 20 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ]

Isotopic fractionation [ edit ]

Photosynthesis is the primary process by which carbon moves from the atmosphere into living things. In both photosynthetic pathways (C3 and C4 ) 12

C is absorbed slightly more easily than 13

C. which in turn is more easily absorbed than 14

C ratios in plants that differ from the ratios in the atmosphere. This effect is known as isotopic fractionation. [ 28 ] [ 29 ]

To determine the degree of fractionation that takes place in a given plant, the amounts of both 12

C and 13

C isotopes are measured, and the resulting 13

C / 12

C ratio is then compared to a standard ratio known as PDB. [ note 5 ] The 13

C / 12

C ratio is used instead of 14

C / 12

C because the former is much easier to measure, and the latter can be easily derived: the depletion of 13

C relative to 12

C is proportional to the difference in the atomic masses of the two isotopes, so the depletion for 14

C is twice the depletion of 13

C. [ 12 ] The fractionation of 13

C. known as ? 13 C. is calculated as follows: [ 28 ]

where the ‰ sign indicates parts per thousand. [ 28 ] Because the PDB standard contains an unusually high proportion of 13

C. [ note 6 ] most measured ? 13 C values are negative.