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Отзывы о курсах Bigwig

Сергей оставил отзыв в 12:18, 27 сентября, 2012 +1 BigWig - небольшой, но дружный и динамично развивающийся клуб

Участие ни к чему не обязывает, но позволяет хорошо провести время, а если хочется и вправду поработать над своим уровнем, это - хотя бы тренировка. Организаторы клуба также ведут курсы английского, на которых можно позаниматься своим языком предметно

В целом - nice) Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Алина оставила отзыв в 13:37, 27 сентября, 2012 0 В Бигвиге действительно с интересом и внимательностью пожходят к ученикам. сестра отходила на курсы, к родителям лично преподаватель приезжает сама. родители довольны и оказывается могут и сами изъясняться на английском))) сейчас посоветовала своему мужчине, с его придирчивостью и нежеланием учиться, пока ходит и кажется доволен)

сама иногда хожу на разгворные встречи, посольку это не огромная корпоративная сеть, здесь почти каждого знают в лицо и встречают как своего, приходишь как будто в гости к другу, на чай. и, при всём этом, каких-то претензий по качеству ни от кого не слышала :) Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Фёдор оставил отзыв в 15:40, 27 сентября, 2012 0 Bigwig - это не просто языковой клуб, но это сообщество людей с которыми всегда приятно проводить время. Посещать мероприятия Bigwig позволяет не только подтянуть свой язык, но также завести новых друзей и знакомых. Я посещал клуб еще только когда он появлялся на свет как небольшие выходные вечерние встречи любителей поговорить на английском на всевозможные темы и могу сказать что клуб держится на потрясающем энтузиазме организаторов, которые любят свое дело, и людях которых они притягивают. Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Елена оставила отзыв в 10:57, 28 сентября, 2012 0 Всем добрый день!

Могу сказать о Big Wig только хорошее. Училась в более чем 10 различных школах/курсах, но нигде так хорошо и душевно не было. Даша и Света - руководители клуба делают все для того, чтобы человек, пришедший к ним получил не только гарматику или лексику, но и радость от обучения. Очень радует контингент обучающихся - это люди целеустрамленные, яркие, интересные - с некоторыми мы продолжаем общаться и за пределами клуба. Что я рекомендую для тех, кто все же решился зайти посмотерть что такое Big Wig.

1. Познакомиться с преподавателем Галиной - а потом поделиться впечателениями здесь ;) Это просто вихрь креатива, энергии и английского.

2. Принимать участие в активностях в клубе: просмотр фильмов, мафия на англ. speed-dating! игры в activity на англ. и многое другое.

3. Принимать участие в активностях клуба за пределами школы: Big Wig часто устраивают квесты в парках, поездки на базы отдыха с программой, которая запомнится на долго, прогулки верхом с инструктором на англ. яз. лимузин пати.

Важно, что атмосфера в клубе теплая, дружелюбная: на каждое занятие - чашка чая с печенькой, хорошее настроение, молодость, энергия, креатив ;) Английский здесь превращается в родной. Скучно уж точно не будет! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Ольга оставила отзыв в 12:36, 30 сентября, 2012 +1 Первое, что вы должны понять перед тем как искать школу иностранного языка, что только от вас зависит результат. Никто знания в вашу голову никакими особыми методиками и упорными тренировками не вложит. Но в Big Wig постороят занятия так, что каждое будет в радость, вы будете полнотью погружаться в иноязычную среду, где сможете проводить время с огромным удовольствием и растущими знаниями.

Огромные разнообразие в выборе занятий! Это могут быть игры, фильмы, различные мероприятия и традиционные уроки. В общем все на ваш вкус.

Более дружелюбной атмосферы не встретите нигде в Москве! А согласитесь, за партой по струнке уже всем надоело сидеть.

Света, Даша, Салман, Галя, Хайди, Маша очень быстро станут вашими друзьями и помогут стать настоящим профи в иностранном зыке. Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Анна оставила отзыв в 17:24, 6 октября, 2012 0 Bigwig отличный центр для изучения языков! Ходила туда на курсы для начинающих - очень помогли. Преодолела все страхи разговаривать на языке. Там учат не только грамматике, но самое главное умению общаться, ведь это очень важно. Преподаватели и администраторы клуба очень внимательные, всегда помогут, подскажут, посоветуют. Там постоянно устраиваются тематические мероприятия, в том числе выездные, атмосфера в коллективе просто супер, благодаря администраторам (Девушки знают и любят свое дело, чем "заражают" многих)! Вообщем советую всем. Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Сергей Смирнов оставил отзыв в 15:19, 4 декабря, 2012 0 Лучшее место для изучения изучения иностранного языка!

- молодые преподаватели - учат весело и интересно

- современный подход - это тот английский, на котором реально разговаривают и пишут (а не тот, что в старых учебниках)

- много интерсных возможностей для общения: кино-клуб, знакомства, выезды, игры

Просто очень интересное и класное место, здесь всегда кипит жизнь и общение. Сюда хочется возворащаться снова и снова =) Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Petya Kohts оставил отзыв в 15:41, 4 декабря, 2012 +3 Bigiwig это не еще одни курсы, где вас за месяц-два натаскивают для сдачи TOEFL, IELTS, SAT, GMAT или какого-нибудь еще экзамена. Bigwig - это такое настроение, когда не хочется идти в большой и пафосный ресторан, а хочется оказаться в небольшом уютном кафе с домашней кухней и небезразличным собеседником. И за незатейливым разговором вдруг находятся ответы на давно назревшие вопросы - к тому же на английском языке! Bigwig для меня это место, чтобы перевести дух и собраться с силами перед большим соревнованием. Спасибо Светлане и Дарье за чудесную атмосферу и индивидуальный подход :-)

Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Татьяна Тихонова оставил отзыв в 21:03, 9 декабря, 2012 +1 Если Вы хотите повысить свой уровень владения языком, избавиться от языкового барьера или просто приятно провести время в хорошей компании, тогда Bigwig - это именно то место, где все это из планов может стать явью! Сюда всегда приятно приходить! Всегда здесь чувствуешь себя долгожданным гостем! Побольше бы таких мест в Москве! Спасибо ребятам за то, что они делают! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Кам оставил отзыв в 02:14, 5 февраля, 2013 0 Бигвиг меня научил английскому. в теплой дружественной атмосфере, приходите и сами убедитесь. что я не обманываю! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Дарья оставила отзыв в 02:15, 5 февраля, 2013 0 Хожу на мафию, очень нравится. Ребята, просто супер! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Людмила оставил отзыв в 11:44, 5 февраля, 2013 +2 Отличное место. где можно в хорошей компании и с пользой для себя провести вечерок. Встречи проходят каждый день и на любой вкус. Часто проходят выездные мероприятия. Мне лично очень нравиться это место, хожу с удовольствием. Можно купить безлимитный абонемент и ходить хоть каждый день! Организаторы постоянно придумывают что-то новенькое, чтобы было еще интересней. Спасибо Вам! Вы молодцы! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Кристина Зейналова оставила отзыв в 14:18, 22 апреля, 2013 +2 Всем привет!

Если Вы ищете курсы для реального изучения иностранного языка, то это непременно BIgwig!

У меня был опыт посещения других курсов, но результат был нулевой. По рекомендации друзей пришла на пробное занятие в Bigwig и мне понравилось!

Здесь чувствуешь себя комфортно, и для меня это главное. Приятные преподаватели, к которым не страшно обратиться с вопросом, и они всегда готовы все объяснить, уютная обстановка и шаговая доступность от метро! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Люба Курочкина оставила отзыв в 16:35, 1 августа, 2013 0 Обожаю bigwig! В первую очередь - за атмосферу. Уже почти год играю там в мафию и сама не заметила, как без малейших усилий с моей стороны значительно улучшился разговорный английский) Приходишь туда как к себе домой :)) Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Мария Бобылева оставила отзыв в 17:30, 23 декабря, 2013 0 Мне очень нравятся преподаватели. Я с удовольствием хожу туда каждое воскресенье. Очень внимательные педагоги: все доходчиво объясняют, чувствуешь как раз за разом начинаешь говорить больше на английском! Помимо этого Бигвиг постоянно устраивает разнообразные мероприятия для студентов. Жду не дождусь, когда смогу присоединиться к ним и начну разговаривать наравне с продвинутыми студентами! Спасибо Бигвиг огромное! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Боронина Анастасия оставила отзыв в 21:28, 28 апреля, 2014 0 Здравствуйте, уже несколько месяцев хожу на курсы и меня все устраивает. Во-первых, преподаватели, во-вторых, открыла для себя новый вид изучения английского языка - это разговорные клубы, всем советую! А еще мне безумно нравится, что в Бигвиг постоянно придумывают какие-нибудь мероприятия, там всегда весело) Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Мария Бобылева оставила отзыв в 15:19, 12 мая, 2014 0 Определенно, это прорыв в области изучения языков. Удивительное сочетание качества, стоимости и результата! С каждым занятием чувствую себя все более уверенно, столько всего полезного узнала и все это с легкостью уложилось в голове! Эти курсы - настоящая находка для тех, кто хочет реально выучить язык! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Даша Климова оставила отзыв в 19:24, 12 августа, 2014 0 Хочу рассказать про мафию на английском языке. Игра очень интересная, проходит по субботам. Мне очень помогла научиться быстро разговаривать.

Очень рекомендую! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Григорий Кость оставил отзыв в 19:35, 12 августа, 2014 0 Я искал для себя место, чтобы заниматься тем, чем мне хотелось. Бигвик стал для меня визитной карточкой. Я ходил на открытые уроки и занятия. Посещал разговорные клубы не один раз. Я посмотрел как проходят разговорные клубы, занятия и мне понравилось. Классные преподаватели, весёлая атмосфера, дружелюбные люди, постоянные мероприятия чтобы дать шанс людям совершенствовать языки. С этого момента я не стал искать другой клуб, расценки вполне приличные и я убедился в этом.

Всем настоятельно рекомендую для тех, кто хочет продолжать учить языки и для тех, кто обычно ходит в разговорные клубы чтобы провести время, оторваться от суеты, развиться и несомненно развивать свой язык! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Eu Ki оставил отзыв в 19:56, 12 августа, 2014 0 Большой выбор курсов и преподавателей. Пришел к ним на бесплатный урок и с удовольствием понял, что учеба может быть живой, интересной и в радость. Потом плавно стал ходить к ним на разговорные клубы и из опыта могу сказать, что нигде в Москве не видел такого сочетания дружественной атмосферы и хорошей подачи материала. По факту знания сами укладываются в голову. Не заметил как стал ходить и на другие их мероприятия - это не школа, а целый социум, где для себя нашел языки, сальсу, пикники и кучу классного настроения. Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Николай Краюшкин оставил отзыв в 22:06, 12 августа, 2014 0 Хотел бы отметить две вещи, которые на меня повлияли больше всего при выборе курсов английского языка.

Во-первых, соотношение цена/качество. Я долго искал курсы для изучения английского языка и такого высокого качества при таких ценах не видел нигде.

Во-вторых, очень понравилось отношение в центре. Очень приятная и тёплая атмосфера царит всегда как вне занятий, так и на самих занятиях. Буду и дальше обучаться на данных курсах.

Большое спасибо всем сотрудникам центра Bigwig за отличную работу и тёплое отношение!

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Виктория Плужникова оставила отзыв в 13:47, 13 августа, 2014 0 Занималась английским на upper-intermediate с Мартином - месяц перед поездкой в Лондон, чтобы освежить язык и разговориться. Очень понравилось! Мартин - отличный преподаватель, великолепно находит подход ко всем, дает возможность высказаться (если необходимо - по принуждению=). Совмещение позитва и эффективности. Спасибо! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Даша Климова оставила отзыв в 20:37, 6 сентября, 2014 0 Я хожу на мафию по субботам. Часто приходят носители языка и иностранцы. Очень интересно и язык быстро учится!

Еще хочу порекомендовать английский клуб по четвергам. Очень нравится. Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Aleksandra Ristic оставила отзыв в 21:03, 6 сентября, 2014 0 Bigwig is one of those places where you can really feel yourself at home. A lot of different languages, conversation clubs, psychology clubs, workshops, and of course - Mafia, all of that in a positive and friendly atmosphere with awesome people. I warmly recommend this experience to everyone - you can improve your language skills and meet new and interesting people with similar interests :) Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Alexandra Karnaukhova оставила отзыв в 21:04, 6 сентября, 2014 0 Мне понравился формат разговорных клубов, а также игра мафия на английском.

При хорошем пассивном знании английского мне не хватало практики его активного применения - и разговорные клубы позволяют достаточно быстро вспомнить то, что нужно, и подтянуть навыки говорения. К плюсам можно отнести непринужденную и дружественную атмосферу клуба, индивидуальный подход к студентам, возможность пообщаться с носителями языка и найти новых друзей.

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Mary Zelenova оставила отзыв в 14:42, 7 сентября, 2014 0 Отличное место! Самое главное - дружественная и непринужденная атмосфера на сто процентов располагает к повышению уровня языка. Очень много носителей, причем не только английского! Мое самое любимое - это мероприятия, которые Бигвиг устраивает достаточно часто. Всегда весело и продуктивно. Рекомендую! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Лариса Шемент оставила отзыв в 15:59, 7 сентября, 2014 0 Я с Bigwig уже почти три года. Обожаю и преподавателей и людей, которые там собираются. На курсы не хожу, но часто бываю в клубах: разговорный, психологический и, конечно, мафия! Интересные темы для общения, креатив и душевная атмосфера. В такой обстановке приятно находиться и поддерживать свой уровень языка. Мафия прекрасно помогает ребятам - завсегдатаям клуба - преодолеть барьер и разговориться без усилий. Activities - это отдельная тема. От соревнований по бильярду до поездок за границу, все очень душевно! Люблю вас, Bidwig! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Кристина Лунева оставила отзыв в 00:25, 8 сентября, 2014 +1 Мне очень нравится Bigwig)) По многим причинам. За его теплую и дружественную атмосферу. Здесь я среди близких друзей, сердечных и общительных людей. И конечно же за то, что можно подтянуть разные стороны иностранного языка, от грамматики до разговорных навыков. Уроки проходят весело и непринужденно))) И это просто здорово)) Мафия супер)) Рекомендую. Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Евгений Киршин оставил отзыв в 07:55, 9 сентября, 2014 0 Отличная школа. Классная подача материала и молодые преподаватели-иностранцы.

Как-то само собой оказалось, что стал хорошо понимать на слух и лучше объясняться. Моя оценка курсов Ответить

Таня Валеева оставила отзыв в 00:36, 16 сентября, 2014 +1 С удовольствием хожу на курсы английского в Bigwig! Очень хороший коллектив, преподаватели отличные, атмосфера очень приятная, дружеская. Очень нравится, что Bigwig находится в центре Москвы-удобно добираться на занятия. Хожу уже почти год и очень довольна результатом! Моя оценка курсов Ответить

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Dating лихорадка

Города штата Калифорния

Несмотря на огромные горные территории Калифорнии, экономическая жизнь штата сосредоточена в низовьях долины, где расположены четыре из двадцати крупнейших городов США: Лос-Анджелес, Сан-Диего, Сан-Хосе и Сан-Франциско.

Столицей Калифорнии является город Сакраменто (Sacramento), в мегаполисе которого проживает 1340 тысяч человек. Во времена Калифорнийской золотой лихорадки 1849 года Сакраменто стал центром района старателей.

Сакраменто - столица Калифорнии

Лос-Анджелес (Los Angeles) – самый большой город Калифорнии и крупнейший центр по производству того, что во всем мире называется Американской Мечтой. По этим самым улицам в шикарных автомобилях разъезжают знаменитые голливудские звезды.

Лос-Анджелес

Шестым по величине городом США является калифорнийский Сан-Диего (San Diego) - важнейшая база военно-морского флота США. На территории городского парка Balboa Park находится множество музеев, ботанических садов и знаменитый зоопарк San Diego Zoo.

Сан-Диего

Калифорнийский город Сан-Франциско (San Francisco) - один из красивейших, интереснейших и огромнейших центров культуры, финансового мира и производства США. Городской трамвай фуникулера, сказочный район "Чайна-таун" и прекрасные зеленые холмы, на которых раскинулся Фриско, окутывают гостей города неподражаемым очарованием и шармом Сан-Франциско.

Сан-Франциско

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Background [ edit ]

Extraction of latex from a rubber tree.

Natural rubber is an elastomer. also known as tree gum, India rubber, and caoutchouc, which comes from the rubber tree in tropical regions. Christopher Columbus was the one of the first Europeans to bring news of this odd substance back to Europe, but he was not the only one to report it. Around 1736, a French astronomer recalled how Amerindians used rubber to waterproof shoes and cloaks. He brought several samples of rubber back to France. Rubber was used as an eraser by scientist Joseph Priestley in England.

It was not until the 1800s that practical uses of rubber were developed and the demand for rubber began. The first factory for rubber products (suspenders (US) or braces (UK)) was in Paris. France. in the year 1803. [ citation needed ] However, the material still had disadvantages: at room temperature, it was sticky. At higher temperatures, the rubber became softer and stickier, while at lower temperatures it became hard and rigid.

The South Amerindians first discovered rubber; sometime dating back to 1600BC. They used it in a ball in a game they called tlachtlic. The Amerindians in the Amazon rainforest developed ways to extract rubber from the rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ), a member of the Euphorbiaceae family.

A white liquid called latex is extracted from the stem of the rubber tree, which contains on average 35% hydrocarbons. in particular 2-methylbuta-1,3-diene (C 5 H 8 ), commercially known as isoprene. the monomer of rubber. Latex is a practically neutral substance, with a pH of 7.0 to 7.2. However, when it is exposed to the air for 12 to 24 hours, its pH falls to 5.0, and it spontaneously coagulates to form the polymer rubber, represented by (C 5 H 8 ) n . where "n" is of the order of 10,000 and gives a molecular mass of 600,000 to 950,000 g/mol.

Rubber produced in this fashion has disadvantages. For example, exposure to air causes it to mix with various materials, which is perceptible and can cause rot, as well as a temperature-dependent stickiness. Industrial treatment was developed to remove the impurities and vulcanize the rubber, a process that eliminated its undesirable qualities. This process gives it superior mechanical properties, and causes it to lose its sticky character, and become stable - resistant to solvents and variations in temperature.

Effects on indigenous population [ edit ]

A photo of enslaved Amazon Indians from the 1912 book "The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise"

The rubber boom and the associated need for a large workforce had a significant negative effect on the indigenous population across Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. As rubber plantations grew, labor shortages increased. The owners of the plantations or rubber barons were rich, but those who collected the rubber made very little as a large amount of rubber was needed to be profitable. The rubber barons rounded up all the Indians and forced them to tap rubber out of the trees. One plantation started with 50,000 Indians and when discovered of the killings, only 8,000 were still alive. Slavery and gross human rights abuses were widespread, and in some areas 90% of the Indian population was wiped out. These rubber plantations were part of the Brazilian rubber market, which declined as rubber plantations in Southeast Asia became more effective. [ 1 ]

Roger Casement. an Irishman travelling the Putumayo region of Peru as a British consul during 1910-1911 documented the abuse, slavery, murder and use of stocks for torture against the native Indians: [ 2 ]

"The crimes charged against many men now in the employ of the Peruvian Amazon Company are of the most atrocious kind, including murder, violation, and constant flogging."

"The horrendous atrocities that were unleashed on the Indian people of the Amazon during the height of the rubber boom were like nothing that had been seen since the first days of the Spanish Conquest."

First rubber boom, 1879–1912 [ edit ]

For the first four and a half centuries following the discovery of the New World. the native populations of the Amazon Basin lived practically in isolation. The area was vast and impenetrable, no gold or precious stones had been found there, as neither colonial Brazil nor imperial Brazil was able to create incentives for development in the region. The regional economy was based on use of diverse natural resources in the region, but development was concentrated in coastal areas.

Rubber: sure wealth [ edit ]

The Industrial Revolution in Europe led to demand for uses that natural rubber could satisfy. At that time, it was exclusively found in the Amazon Basin. It was a desirable commodity, valued at a high price, and thought to create wealth and dividends for whoever would dare invest in the trade.

From the beginning of the second half of the 19th century, rubber began to exert a strong attraction to visionary entrepreneurs. The activity of latex extraction in the Amazon revealed its lucrative possibilities. Natural rubber soon achieved a place of distinction in the industries of Europe and North America, reaching a high price. This caused various people to travel to Brazil with the intention of learning more about the rubber tree and the process of latex extraction, from which they hoped to make their fortunes.

Because of the growth of rubber extraction, industrial processing and related activities, numerous cities and towns swelled on waves of immigrants. In 1855, over 2,100 tons of rubber was exported from the Amazon; a figure which reached 10,000 tons by 1879. [ 3 ] Belem and Manaus were transformed and urbanized. Manaus was the first Brazilian city to be urbanized and the second to be electrified (the first was Campos dos Goytacazes. in Rio de Janeiro). [ citation needed ]

Development of railroads [ edit ]

The rubber boom justified the construction of the Madeira Mamore Railroad

Developers in Bolivia in 1846 began to promote the idea of constructing a railroad along the Madeira and Mamore Rivers. in order to reach ports on the Atlantic Ocean for its export products. Its territory did not reach the coast.

Rivers had long been the key to navigation and travel through the Amazon Basin. An initial proposal was based on travel up the Mamore in Bolivia and down the Madeira River in Brazil. But, the river course had substantial obstacles to industrial-level transport: twenty cataracts obstructed navigation. Constructing a railroad to bypass the problematic stretches of the rivers was the only solution.

In 1867, in Brazil, also trying to develop a simple way to transport the rubber, the engineers Jose and Francisco Keller organized a large expedition. They explored the rubber region of the Madeira River to find the most productive region and the most effective course for the railroad.

Although the idea of river navigation was complicated, in 1869, the North American engineer George Earl Church obtained from the Bolivian government a concession to create and explore a navigation enterprise that linked the Mamore and Madeira Rivers. Shortly afterwards, he realized the real difficulty of this undertaking. He changed the plans to construction of a railroad. Negotiations advanced and, by 1870, Church received permission from the Brazilian government to build a railroad along the rubber territories of the Madeira River.

The Acre question [ edit ]

The territory of Acre state in modern Brazil

The increase in uncontrolled extraction of rubber was increasing tensions and close to provoking an international conflict. The Brazilian workers advanced further and further into the forests in the territory of Bolivia in search of new rubber trees for extraction, creating conflicts and skirmishes on the frontier towards the end of the 19th century. The Bolivian Army, led by Jose Placido de Castro. was sent into the area to protect Bolivian resources. The newly proclaimed Brazilian republic was drawing a considerable profit from the lucrative rubber trade, but the "Acre question" (as the border conflicts caused by rubber extraction became known) preoccupied it.

Intervention by the diplomat Barao do Rio Branco and the ambassador Joaquim Francisco de Assis Brasil. in part financed by the "rubber barons," led to negotiations with Bolivia and the signing of the Treaty of Petropolis. signed November 17, 1903 during the government of president Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves. While it halted conflict with Bolivia, the treaty guaranteed effective control by Brazil of the forests of Acre.

Brazil was given possession of the region by Bolivia in exchange for territories in Mato Grosso. a payment of two million pounds sterling, and the compromise of constructing the railroad to connect to the Madeira River. This would enable Bolivia to transport its goods, primarily rubber, to the Brazilian ports of the Atlantic at the mouth of the Amazon River. Initially Belem in Para was designated as the destination.

Because of the peaceful resolution of this issue, the capital of Acre was named Rio Branco after the Brazilian diplomat. Two of the municipalities in the state were named Assis Brasil and Placido de Castro. after the ambassador and another key figure.

Madeira-Mamore Railway [ edit ]

The Madeira Mamore Railway became known as the "Devil's Railroad" on account of having caused the death of around six thousand workers (in legends said to be one dead worker per railroad tie attached to the rails) was constructed by the United States corporation Percival Farquhar. The construction of the railroad began in 1907 during the government of Afonso Augusto Moreira Pena and was one of the most significant episodes in the history of the occupation of the Amazon, revealing the clear attempt to integrate it into the global marketplace via the commercialization of rubber.

On April 30, 1912, the final stretch of the Madeira-Mamore Railroad was completed. The occasion was commemorated by the arrival of the first train to the city of Guajara-Mirim. founded on that same day.

First, the price of latex fell precipitously in the world market, making the trade of rubber from the Amazon unviable. Also, the transport of products that could have been transported by the Madeira-Mamore Railroad were taken by two other railroads, one in Chile and the other in Argentina, and the Panama Canal. which became active on August 15, 1914.

Added to this, the natural factor, the Amazon forest, with its high level of rainfall and rapid growth, destroyed entire stretches of the rails, leveled ground, and bridges, reclaiming a large part of the way that people had insisted on clearing to construct the railroad.

The railroad was partially taken out of service in the 1930s and completely in 1972 That year the Trans-Amazonian highway (BR-230) opened. Today, from a total of 364 km of length of railway, about seven remain in active use, used for tourist purposes. The people of Rondonia have fought for revitalization of the railroad, but as of December 1, 2006, the work remains unstarted.

Apogee, elegance, and luxury [ edit ]

Amazon Theatre in Manaus, one of the luxurious buildings built with rubber fortunes.

Belem. the capital of Para state, as well as Manaus. the capital of Amazonas. were the most developed and prosperous cities in Brazil during the rubber boom. They were located in strategic sites, and prominent men in the rubber industry built their numerous and wealthy residences in each. These citizens created the demand that led to both cities being electrified and given running water and sewers.

Their apogee was reached between 1890 and 1920, when they acquired electric trams, avenues built on cleared gullies, as well as imposing and luxurious buildings, such as the polished Teatro Amazonas. the government palace, the municipal market, and the customs house, in the case of Manaus; and the fish market, the iron market, Teatro da Paz. corridors of mango trees, and various residential palaces in the case of Belem, constructed in large part by the intendant Antonio Lemos. These technologies and construction did not take place anywhere else in south and southeast Brazil of the time.

The European influence later became notable in Manaus and Belem, in the architecture and culture; and the two cities enjoyed their greatest economies and influence in the 19th century. The Amazon Basin was the source in the era for nearly 40% of all Brazil's exports. The new riches of Manaus made the city the world capital in the sale of diamonds. Thanks to rubber, the per capita income of Manaus was twice as much as the coffee-producing region (Sao Paulo. Rio de Janeiro and Espirito Santo ).

As payment for the export of rubber, the workers were paid in pounds sterling (?), the currency of the United Kingdom. which circulated in Manaus and Belem during this period.

End of the Amazon's rubber monopoly [ edit ]

The Madeira–Mamore Railroad, finished in 1912, arrived too late. The Amazon was already losing primacy in rubber production, as the English had planted rubber trees in its colonies in Malaysia. Sri Lanka. and tropical Africa. These rubber trees were planted from seeds that Henry Wickham had smuggled out of Brazil in 1876. [ 4 ] These plantations were able to produce latex with greater efficiency and productivity. Consequently, with lower costs and a lower final price, the British Empire assumed control of the world rubber market.

The Amazon's rubber was undercut in the world market and demand for it fell. This rapidly resulted in the stagnation of the regional economy. There was a lack of entrepreneurial or governmental vision to find alternatives for development. The "rubber barons" and economic elite followed the money, leaving the region to seek their next fortunes elsewhere.

Malaysia, which invested in the planting of rubber trees and in latex extraction technology, was the principal cause of the loss of the Brazilian monopoly

Although the railroad and the cities of Porto Velho and Guajara-Mirim remained as a legacy to this bright economic period, the recession caused by the end of the rubber boom left profound scars on the Amazon region. There was a massive loss of state tax income, high levels of unemployment. rural and urban emigration, and abandoned and unneeded housing. Those who remained in the region had few expectations for the future. Deprived of their income, the rubber workers remained in the periphery of Manaus, searching for new work. Because of the lack of housing, in the 1920s they built the cidade flutuante ("floating city"), a type of residence that was consolidated in the 1960s.

To try to stem the crisis, the central government of Brazil created the Superintendencia de Defesa da Borracha ("Superintendency of Defence of Rubber"). It was inefficient and unable to effect real change, and, for this reason, it was eliminated soon after its creation.

In the 1930s, Henry Ford. the United States automobile pioneer, undertook the cultivation of rubber trees in the Amazon region. He established the city of Fordlandia in the west part of Para state, specifically for this end, together with worker housing and planned community amenities. The plantation suffered from a leaf pest and the effort failed.

The second rubber boom, 1942-1945 [ edit ]

Changes in the world economy during the Second World War created a new rubber boom, although it was of brief duration. As Japan dominated the eastern Pacific Ocean from the beginning of 1942 and invaded Malaysia, the rubber plantations there came under their control. 97% of the Asian rubber production was lost to the Allies.

Rubber production returned to the Amazon Basin, incorporating some new technologies. United States companies invested in the region and their managers played an active role. New buildings were constructed in Belem and Manaus. An example was the Grande Hotel, a luxurious hotel constructed in Belem in only three years, which today is the Hilton Hotel.

The rubber battle [ edit ]

Eager to supply the Allied Forces with the rubber needed for war equipment, the Brazilian government made an agreement with the United States government (the Washington Accords ). It set goals for the large-scale extraction of Amazon latex, an operation which became known as the Batalha da borracha ("rubber battle"), for the manpower and effort devoted to the project.

After the rubber forests were abandoned, no more than 35,000 workers remained in the region. The great challenge of Brazil was to increase the annual production of latex from 18,000 to 45,000 tons, as set in the agreement. For this, 100,000 men were needed.

During the same period, the northeast part of Brazil had suffered a devastating drought and an unprecedented crisis for its farmers. Brazil decided to recruit new rubber workers from that region. The Estado Novo in 1943 ordered the compulsory enlisting of workers in the Servico Especial de Mobilizacao de Trabalhadores para a Amazonia (SEMTA; "Special Service of Mobilization of Workers for the Amazon"), based in the northeast, in Fortaleza. Brazilian president Getulio Vargas reduced the problem of the economic blight and at the same time increased colonization of the Amazon Basin.

In addition to SEMTA . the government created other organizations to support the rubber battle: the Superintendencia para o Abastecimento do Vale da Amazonia (SAVA: the Superintendency for the Provisioning of the Amazon Valley), the Servico Especial de Saude Publica (SESP: the Special Service of Public Health), and the Servico de Navegacao da Amazonia e de Administracao do Porto do Para (SNAPP: Navigation Service of the Amazon and Administration of the Port of Para). The Banco de Credito da Borracha (Rubber Credit Bank) was also created. Later in 1950 it became the Banco de Credito da Amazonia (Amazon Credit Bank).

The United States government paid the Brazilian government $100 for every worker delivered to the Amazon

The international organization Rubber Development Corporation (RDC), financed with capital from United States industries, covered the expenses of relocating the migrants (known at the time as brabos ). The United States government paid the Brazilian government $100 for every worker delivered to the Amazon.

In 1849 Manaus had 5,000 inhabitants, expanding in the next half-century to 70,000. During World War II, the region again enjoyed prosperity. Money began to circulate in Manaus, Belem, and other cities and towns nearby, and the regional economy gained strength.

Mosquito, the vector of malaria and yellow fever. diseases which caused many deaths among the rubber workers

For many workers, it was a one-way journey. About 30,000 rubber workers died in the Amazon, after having exhausted their energies extracting the "white gold." They died of malaria. yellow fever. and hepatitis. [ 5 ] They also suffered attacks by animals such as panthers. serpents. and scorpions. The Brazilian government did not fulfill its promise to return the "rubber soldiers" to their homes at the end of the war as heroes and with housing comparable to that of the military veterans. [ 6 ] It is estimated that only about 6,000 workers managed to return to their homes, at their own expense. In the 21st century, the decreasing number of survivors have challenged the government for recognition and compensation for themselves and their families for their contributions to the war effort. [ 6 ]

Legacy [ edit ]

The abrupt end of the first and second rubber booms demonstrate the entrepreneurial incapacity and the lack of vision of the dominant class and politicians of the region. The end of the war brought the loss of the chance to correct the mistakes made after the first rubber boom.

No effective plan of regional sustainable development or improvements to rubber production were made. With the end of the war, the economies of both the winners and losers were reorganized in Europe and Asia. It was the end of the relatively inefficient rubber production in the Amazon. Asian production again quickly supplanted that of the Amazon.

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Up Next

You probably have seen or read news stories about fascinating ancient artifacts. At an archaeological dig, a piece of wooden tool is unearthed and the archaeologist finds it to be 5,000 years old. A child mummy is found high in the Andes and the archaeologist says the child lived more than 2,000 years ago. How do scientists know how old an object or human remains are? What methods do they use and how do these methods work? In this article, we will examine the methods by which scientists use radioactivity to determine the age of objects, most notably carbon-14 dating .

WHO'S ON FIRST?

A RELATIVE DATING ACTIVITY

MARSHA BARBER and DIANA SCHEIDLE BARTOS

INTRODUCTION

PALEONTOLOGY, AND in particular the study of dinosaurs, is an exciting topic to people of all ages. Although most attention in today's world focuses on dinosaurs and why they became extinct, the world of paleontology includes many other interesting organisms which tell us about Earth's past history. The study of fossils and the exploration of what they tell scientists about past climates and environments on Earth can be an interesting study for students of all ages.

Teaching about Earth's history is a challenge for all teachers. Time factors of millions and billions of years is difficult even for adults to comprehend. However, "relative" dating or time can be an easy concept for students to learn.

In this activity, students begin a sequencing activity with familiar items — letters written on cards. Once they are able to manipulate the cards into the correct sequence, they are asked to do a similar sequencing activity using fossil pictures printed on "rock layer" cards. Sequencing the rock layers will show students how paleontologists use fossils to give relative dates to rock strata.

Once students begin to grasp "relative" dating, they can extend their knowledge of geologic time by exploring radiometric dating and developing a timeline of Earth's history. These major concepts are part of the Denver Earth Science Project's "Paleontology and Dinosaurs" module written for students in grades 7-10. The module is an integrated unit which addresses the following National Science Education Standards:

*Science as Inquiry: Students develop the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry — identify questions, design and conduct scientific investigations, use appropriate tools and technologies to gather, analyze and interpret data, think critically and logically to make the relationships between evidence and explanations, communicate results, and use mathematics in all aspects of scientific inquiry. *Life Science: Fossils indicate that many organisms that lived long ago are extinct. Extinction of species is common; most of the species that have lived on the earth no longer exist. *Earth and Space Science: Fossils provide important evidence of how life and environmental conditions have changed.

The complete "Paleontology and Dinosaurs" module takes approximately four weeks to teach. The "Who's On First?" activity is a 30-minute introduction to geologic time.

WHO'S ON FIRST? RELATIVE DATING (Student Activity)

INTRODUCTION

Scientists have good evidence that the earth is very old, approximately four and one-half billion years old. Scientific measurements such as radiometric dating use the natural radioactivity of certain elements found in rocks to help determine their age. Scientists also use direct evidence from observations of the rock layers themselves to help determine the relative age of rock layers. Specific rock formations are indicative of a particular type of environment existing when the rock was being formed. For example, most limestones represent marine environments, whereas, sandstones with ripple marks might indicate a shoreline habitat or a riverbed.

The study and comparison of exposed rock layers or strata in various parts of the earth led scientists in the early 19th century to propose that the rock layers could be correlated from place to place. Locally, physical characteristics of rocks can be compared and correlated. On a larger scale, even between continents, fossil evidence can help in correlating rock layers. The Law of Superposition, which states that in an undisturbed horizontal sequence of rocks, the oldest rock layers will be on the bottom, with successively younger rocks on top of these, helps geologists correlate rock layers around the world. This also means that fossils found in the lowest levels in a sequence of layered rocks represent the oldest record of life there. By matching partial sequences, the truly oldest layers with fossils can be worked out.

By correlating fossils from various parts of the world, scientists are able to give relative ages to particular strata. This is called relative dating. Relative dating tells scientists if a rock layer is "older" or "younger" than another. This would also mean that fossils found in the deepest layer of rocks in an area would represent the oldest forms of life in that particular rock formation. In reading earth history, these layers would be "read" from bottom to top or oldest to most recent. If certain fossils are typically found only in a particular rock unit and are found in many places worldwide, they may be useful as index or guide fossils in determining the age of undated strata. By using this information from rock formations in various parts of the world and correlating the studies, scientists have been able to establish the geologic time scale. This relative time scale divides the vast amount of earth history into various sections based on geological events (sea encroachments, mountain-building, and depositional events), and notable biological events (appearance, relative abundance, or extinction of certain life forms).

Objectives: When you complete this activity, you will be able to: (1) sequence information using items which overlap specific sets; (2) relate sequencing to the Law of Superposition; and (3) show how fossils can be used to give relative dates to rock layers.

Materials: two sets of sequence cards in random order (set A. nonsense syllables; set B. sketches of fossils), pencil, paper

Procedure Set A:

1) Spread the cards with the nonsense syllables on the table and determine the correct sequence of the eight cards by comparing letters that are common to individual cards and, therefore, overlap. The first card in the sequence has "Card 1, Set A" in the lower left-hand corner and represents the bottom of the sequence. If the letters "T" and "C" represent fossils in the oldest rock layer, they are the oldest fossils, or the first fossils formed in the past for this sequence of rock layers.

2. Now, look for a card that has either a "T" or "C" written on it. Since this card has a common letter with the first card, it must go on top of the "TC" card. The fossils represented by the letters on this card are "younger" than the "T" or "C" fossils on the "TC" card which represents fossils in the oldest rock layer. Sequence the remaining cards by using the same process. When you finish, you should have a vertical stack of cards with the top card representing the youngest fossils of this rock sequence and the "TC" card at the bottom of the stack representing the oldest fossils.

Interpretation Questions:

1) After you have arranged the cards in order, write your sequence of letters (using each letter only once) on a separate piece of paper. Starting with the top card, the letters should be in order from youngest to oldest.

2) How do you know that "X" is older than "M"?

3) Explain why "D" in the rock layer represented by DM is the same age as "M."

4) Explain why "D" in the rock layer represented by OXD is older than "D" in the rock layer represented by DM.

Procedure Set B:

1) Carefully examine the second set of cards which have sketches of fossils on them. Each card represents a particular rock layer with a collection of fossils that are found in that particular rock stratum. All of the fossils represented would be found in sedimentary rocks of marine origin. Figure 2-A gives some background information on the individual fossils.

2) The oldest rock layer is marked with the letter "M" in the lower left-hand corner. The letters on the other cards have no significance to the sequencing procedure and should be ignored at this time. Find a rock layer that has at least one of the fossils you found in the oldest rock layer. This rock layer would be younger as indicated by the appearance of new fossils in the rock stratum. Keep in mind that extinction is forever. Once an organism disappears from the sequence it cannot reappear later. Use this information to sequence the cards in a vertical stack of fossils in rock strata. Arrange them from oldest to youngest with the oldest layer on the bottom and the youngest on top.

Interpretation Questions:

1) Using the letters printed in the lower left-hand corner of each card, write the sequence of letters from the youngest layer to the oldest layer (i. e. from the top of the vertical stack to the bottom). This will enable your teacher to quickly check whether you have the correct sequence.

2) Which fossil organisms could possibly be used as index fossils?

3) Name three organisms represented that probably could not be used as index fossils and explain why.

4) In what kinds of rocks might you find the fossils from this activity?

5) State the Law of Superposition and explain how this activity illustrates this law.

Figure 2-A. Sketches of Marine Fossil Organisms (Not to Scale)

Radiometric dating

Radiometric dating (often called radioactive dating ) is a technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay rates. [ 1 ] The use of radiometric dating was first published in 1907 by Bertram Boltwood [ 2 ] and is now the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks and other geological features, including the age of the Earth itself, and can be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials. Together with stratigraphic principles. radiometric dating methods are used in geochronology to establish the geological time scale. [ 3 ] Among the best-known techniques are radiocarbon dating. potassium-argon dating and uranium-lead dating. By allowing the establishment of geological timescales, it provides a significant source of information about the ages of fossils and the deduced rates of evolutionary change. Radiometric dating is also used to date archaeological materials, including ancient artifacts.

Different methods of radiometric dating vary in the timescale over which they are accurate and the materials to which they can be applied.

Radioactive decay [ edit ]

Example of a radioactive decay chain from lead-212 ( 212 Pb) to lead-208 ( 208 Pb). Each parent nuclide spontaneously decays into a daughter nuclide (the decay product ) via an ? decay or a ? ? decay. The final decay product, lead-208 ( 208 Pb), is stable and can no longer undergo spontaneous radioactive decay.

All ordinary matter is made up of combinations of chemical elements. each with its own atomic number. indicating the number of protons in the atomic nucleus. Additionally, elements may exist in different isotopes. with each isotope of an element differing in the number of neutrons in the nucleus. A particular isotope of a particular element is called a nuclide. Some nuclides are inherently unstable. That is, at some point in time, an atom of such a nuclide will undergo radioactive decay and spontaneously transform into a different nuclide. This transformation may be accomplished in a number of different ways, including alpha decay (emission of alpha particles ) and beta decay (electron emission, positron emission, or electron capture ). Another possibility is spontaneous fission into two or more nuclides.

For most radioactive nuclides, the half-life depends solely on nuclear properties and is essentially a constant. It is not affected by external factors such as temperature. pressure. chemical environment, or presence of a magnetic or electric field. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] The only exceptions are nuclides that decay by the process of electron capture. such as beryllium-7. strontium-85. and zirconium-89. whose decay rate may be affected by local electron density. For all other nuclides, the proportion of the original nuclide to its decay products changes in a predictable way as the original nuclide decays over time. This predictability allows the relative abundances of related nuclides to be used as a clock to measure the time from the incorporation of the original nuclides into a material to the present.

Age of the Earth

The age of the Earth is 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years (4.54 ? 10 9 years ± 1%). [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] This age is based on evidence from radiometric age dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the ages of the oldest-known terrestrial and lunar samples .

Following the scientific revolution and the development of radiometric age dating, measurements of lead in uranium-rich minerals showed that some were in excess of a billion years old. [ 4 ] The oldest such minerals analyzed to date – small crystals of zircon from the Jack Hills of Western Australia – are at least 4.404 billion years old. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Comparing the mass and luminosity of the Sun to those of other stars. it appears that the solar system cannot be much older than those rocks. Calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions – the oldest known solid constituents within meteorites that are formed within the solar system – are 4.567 billion years old, [ 8 ] [ 9 ] giving an age for the solar system and an upper limit for the age of Earth .

It is hypothesised that the accretion of Earth began soon after the formation of the calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions and the meteorites. Because the exact amount of time this accretion process took is not yet known, and the predictions from different accretion models range from a few millions up to about 100 million years, the exact age of Earth is difficult to determine. It is also difficult to determine the exact age of the oldest rocks on Earth, exposed at the surface, as they are aggregates of minerals of possibly different ages.

Your Choices Matter: Citizen Action Alerts

Stand in solidarity with Pacific Islanders blocking coal trains

Quote of the week

"The word for stone, asin, is animate, Stones are called grandfathers and grandmothers and are extremely important in Ojibwe philosophy. Once I began to think of stones as animate, I started to wonder whether I was picking up a stone or it was putting itself into my hand. Stones are not the same in English. I can't write about a stone without considering it in Ojibwe and acknowledging that the Anishinabe universe began with a conversation between stones."

Ask the River

Ask the river how to see this world

With a mind of water,

Holding the sky in your eyes,

Declaration of Interdependence

Misusing Darwin: How Misunderstanding “Survival of the Fittest” Makes us Unfit for Survival

Posted on February 22, 2009 by Madronna Holden

Updated 4.26.2014

“Never use the words higher and lower”.

“Perhaps there is no coincidence that amoeba, insects, animals, the human culture and society, generally follow innate rules of cooperation. Darwin’s explanation of evolution as a struggle for existence needs to be tempered with an acknowledgment of the importance of cooperation in the evolution of complexity.”

–Thomas P. Zwaka, cellular biologist

“To decide that people are the highest, most evolved species… reflects more the strongman logic of human beings than the true state of nature.”

“Few tragedies can be more extensive than the stunting of life; few injustices deeper than the denial of an opportunity to strive or even to hope by a limit imposed from without [by science misused].”

Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man

“Those communities which included the greatest number of the most sympathetic members would flourish best and rear the greatest number of offspring.”

Charles Darwin The Descent of Man

—————

Charles Darwin was a meticulous observer of the natural world in his seminal Origin of the Species. But he left a problematic legacy when he turned to the analysis of human society in his Descent of Man. On the one hand, we see his emphasis on the importance of cooperation in the development of human societies in the quote above. On the other hand, he violated his own scientific precepts, such as “never use the words higher or lower” in his analysis of particular societies as being “below” those of Europeans in development.

As Japanese “natural farmer” Masanobu Fukuoka, observed, an essential question in the hierarchical notion “survival of the fittest” is who decides what is “higher and lower”– and by what criteria. Humans who decide they are the highest and best products of evolution use criteria like human intelligence to come to this conclusion.

But as Darwin himself noted, the bee would undoubtedly use a very different critierion.

Darwin also noted that cooperation is far more important than competition in the working of natural systems, whereas social Darwinism – in the guise of Manifest Destiny, for instance, emphasizes competition and thus justifies conquest.

More troubling even than its sloppy science is how social Darwinism asserts that societies on the side of “progress” are destined to overcome and replace others as a matter of natural (or divine) law. It also asserts that impoverished classes are responsible for their own problems. In this theory, even the children of the poor become “less fit”– and thus their hunger or poor schooling can be ignored. This view contorts the idea of natural selection for sake of what Val Plumwood termed “dominator” societies.

Indeed, it misuses the scientific understanding of natural evolution to refurbish a notion rooted in ancient colonial history-in Aristotle’s declaration that slaves are slaves by nature, just as masters are masters. And “civilizations” or “advanced” societies have the natural license to take over the lands of others and impose their way of life on them. Darwin himself is complicit in this misunderstanding, since his own social conclusions (as opposed to his natural science investigations) included the unsupported statement that “males are more evolutionarily advanced than females” .

Such hierarchical dualism–dividing the world into male and female, poor and rich, civilization and “savage” as the higher and lower Darwin cautions himself to avoid, describes much of the history of modern nation states. But it is not the narrative that describes natural selection. Indeed, human societies that behave in this fashion are comparatively short lived.

The untold part of this story is the way in which the overrun and eliminate idea of “survival of the fittest” makes those who hold it unfit for survival.

Ignoring Natural Limits

The historical experience of exploiting other lands and societies sets up the general practice of living beyond one’s limits. The cataclysmic result is indicated in Overshoot, reviewed in Rachel’s Environmental Weekly for February 12, 2009-a fitting essay with which to commemorate Darwin’s 200 th birthday. Overshoot details the ways in which humans have temporarily increased the carrying capacity of the land (its ability to support human populations) by using up past resources (such as oil that takes millions of years to produce and minerals that will never be replaced) and future resources (ones necessary to the lives of our children).

Colonialism and certain dynamics of modern globalization encourage such “overshooting”, when some nations exploit the resources of others in order to survive, rather than living on their own natural budgets.

Ultimately however, an overshooting society runs out of “ghost acreage” on which to rely-and must face the dilemma of supporting an overblown population on ravaged natural systems.

In short, it inevitably crashes.

Social violence and unrest

Societies with beliefs in heroic conquest and legitimized oppression are fraught with internal dissension. As a result, they are the most short-lived societies in human history. They are fortunate to eke out a few hundred years before their collapse, as opposed to tens of thousands of years of longevity of certain indigenous societies.

Decreasing natural and cultural diversity

The thrust of natural evolution is to increase diversity–as Herbert Spengler, modern author of the theory of “social Darwinism”, acknowledged– though he failed to address how Manifest Destiny itself ran counter to such diversity in replacing hundreds of other human cultures with colonial ones on the North American and African continents.

In the modern industrial era, globalization directed by”mal-developed” nations (as Vandana Shiva has called them) use technological fixes unresponsive to unique ecological landscapes. Modern global development too often directly counters diversity in its emphasis on mono-technology (as in mono-cropping), as it attempts to adapt all landscapes to such one-size-fits-all subsistence strategies.

But diversification is necessary to natural selection. More choices allow more opportunities for natural selection and diverse systems are more resilient in the face of stress than homogenous ones. Place-sensitive small farming is more resilient to drought and disease than large scale industrial farming, for instance.

But modern globalization homogenizes both culture and place. No McDonald’s is different from any other-no matter what the landscape on which it sits. Modern development results in the replacement of perhaps millions of other species with the human one. As Murray Bookchin argues, this is not progress but reverse evolution.

Ignorance of adaptive processes

Darwin’s theory tells us that natural selection operates through the adaptation of species to their environments. But this is hardly the same thing as the simple elimination of physically (or militarily) weak by those who are physically stronger.

Adaptation is a far different thing from seizure or reshaping of the land or control of its life systems. Adaptation is a two-way process. In order for there to be successful adaptation of the land to human needs, there must also be successful adaptation of humans to the land.

Physical power, that is, is not commensurate with adaptation. If the predator wipes out all its prey, it wipes out its own means of survival. Predators must have a complementary relationship with their prey in order for that relationship to be adaptive.

Ultimately, as Bookchin and Val Plumwood both observe, the sustainable predator-prey relationship is a balanced or egalitarian one. In any ecological system, even the “top predator” is eventually eaten as well as eater. In this way energy and resources are recirculated: the life that we borrow from the natural system, as Plumwood puts it, goes back to the pool of life from whence it came.

In modern society, we try to avoid consciousness of the reciprocal natural of this process, Plumwood also notes, by embalming human bodies as if we could lift them out of the natural cycle. But we aren’t doing either nature or ourselves any favor here. We thus enforce ignorance of the systems upon which we rely for survival-and turning cemeteries into toxic waste dumps, since the only way to stop decomposition of a human body is to fill it with poison.

An added irony here is that top predators are more vulnerable to the toxics we release in our environment today than are those lower on the food chain. Such toxics concentrate as they move up the food chain. If, as the saying goes, it’s lonely at the top, it’s dangerous there too. This is only one way in which top predators are more fragile than their complements who live lower on the food chain.

Denied dependency on sources of survival

In any system based on domination, those at the top deny their dependency on the ones at the bottom, as Plumwood has also analyzed in detail. Thus the slave owners in the Old South devalued the real contribution of slaves to their “civilization”. And the household labor of women is not financially compensated-as if it were worth nothing.

In worldviews marked by hierarchy and domination, humans also ignore and render invisible their dependency on the natural life that they deemed “lower” than humanity. The ignorance of our dependency on natural systems allows us to blithely undermine our means of survival.

Denied vulnerability and bonding

There are other ways in which the overrun and overcome model of “survival of the fittest” blinds its holder to the actual workings of social and ecological relationships. In terms of this model, there is no benefit in being vulnerable to others. But in human societies, the links between vulnerability and bonding bring us culture itself. Just as the long dependency period of human children allows them to learn their culture, the physical vulnerability of elders puts them in a position to pass on cultural information.

As an added note to those who would link survival of the fittest to the sociobiological perspective that sees natural behavior primarily motivated by passing one’s genes around, there is the fact that in some societies social fathering is more important than genetic fathering. That is, identifying the actual genetic father of a child is of little consequence, and the man who nurtures a child and passes on personal has the real status as “father”.

Humans are not the only ones to whom things other than physical strength count in the social arena. Dog and wolf packs will often defer to an older, more experienced animal in spite of its relative physical weakness or smaller stature.

Loss of achievement through competition

Contrary to the competitive notion of survival of the fittest, competition does not always breed achievement-including the transmission of genes. Take the case of the red deer of Ireland. Their fight to the death amidst clashing of antlers embodies our myth of the young stag who replaces the older and weaker one. But observation of the actual breeding habits of these deer indicates that while the more aggressive stags are fighting (often to the death), the other deer are breeding.

Similarly, in a recent study on biso n University of California researchers found that the bulls with the quietest calls are the ones most likely to breed. Megan Wyman, the study’s lead author, speculates that these bulls keep a “low profile” in order to avoid a fight that would cause them to lose access to females.

In yet another examples, a PBS documentary on the wolves of Yellowstone illustrates the breeding success of a wolf observers dubbed “Casanova” because he was so interested in breeding– but careful to avoid all fights with his peers. When the alpha wolves of his clan were killed by other aggressive wolves, he wound up being the only male to pass on his genes. A recent interview with a researcher on NPR revealed that DNA analysis verified that alpha baboons were passing on their genes far less frequently than baboons of less status that were “pals” with females.

These instances illustrate how natural selection may take more aggressive individuals out of the gene pool.

I am not saying this always happens– but I am saying the formula physical-dominance - equals-breeding is far too simplistic to explain what happens within a species, much less in whole ecological systems.

As for another wolf-related species with which we are intimately familiar, Temple Grandin, in her book Animals Make us Human has recently argued the scientific case that those who see dogs in the wild as having dominance hierarchies are decidedly wrong. She undercuts the notion of the “alpha” dog with considerable data. She does not dispute that those dogs living in human homes in contact with multiple other dogs in crowded conditions might express hierarchies as a method of maintaining order. She only insists that such cannot be attributed to the nature of dogs.

In the human arena, psychologist Alfie Kohn has written several books on the importance of altruism and cooperation. His findings are summed up in a popular article called “How to Succeed without even Vying”, in which he tells the story of his search for an experiment that indicated competition improved performance. He couldn’t find any-in spite of the fact that many experimenters set up their work to support the positive effects of competition.

Their results indicated that competition actually hampered performance. Kohn speculates that the energy siphoned off in worrying about getting the other guy subtracts from performance, whereas cooperation adds energy to groups endeavors.

Fostering Illness rather than Health

On the basis of their research, geneticists in a recent essay in Science proposed that we define health in the physical body, natural systems, and social systems as cooperation– and illness in those same arenas as competition.

Their research indicates that cells in the healthy mammal body operate on complex cooperative dynamics–but when a sick cell leaves the cooperative cycle– and begins competing with others on an individualistic basis– we get illnesses such as cancer.

The Alternative: Survival of those who fit in

There is an alternative model to competitive or aggressive interpretations of “survival of the fittest” expressed by long-lived societies who perceive human fitness for survival as “fitting into country”, in the words of indigenous Australians who explained this to anthropologist Deborah Rose. Longevity was directly linked to being “rooted to this ground” and acting with care before the “eyes” of the others who share it, as expressed by Chehalis elder Henry Cultee.

The article by Rose cites Tim Flannery’s analysis of the ecological operation of a particular Australian landscape and the resulting conclusion that “species that cooperate in large, complex systems have the best change for continuing life.”

Here is a quote from Rose, summing the knowledge she learned from her Aboriginal teachers: unlike the “theory of survival through competition, an indigenous concept of survival of the fittest denotes…[that] those who are most fit are those who know most about how to fit in… It offers a synergistic account of life in which fitness is a project shared amongst living things, rather than a scare resource to be competed for. And it brings people into country as participants rather than ‘winners’” (p. 120)

Societies who have linked survival with fitting in traditionally managed their landscapes for resilient biodiversity, based on reciprocity and mutual adaptation between humans and nature. Today these societies are in a special position to care for earth’s living systems in the face of stresses induced by industrialization, since modern indigenous peoples currently steward eighty per cent of the world’s biodiversity.

It is a misuse of the theories of a man who cautioned himself “never to use the words ‘higher’ and ‘lower” to perceive evolution as based on dominating hierarchies– especially human-established ones that falsely preach that survivors are those who wipe out and replace other natural lives.

———————-

This essay is under copyright protection as is all the material on this site, but please feel free to link to it, or to copy it, crediting its source. If you want to reproduce it any other way, please email me for permission at holdenma@comcast. net. Thanks for visiting this site.

Dating vs relationship

Casual sexual relationship

A casual sexual relationship . casual relationship . or casual dating . is a physical and emotional relationship between two people who may have casual sex or a near-sexual relationship without necessarily demanding or expecting the extra commitments of a more formal romantic relationship. Motives for casual relationships vary. [ 1 ] There are significant gender and cultural differences in acceptance of and breadth of casual relationships, [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] as well as in regrets about action/inaction in those relationships. [ 6 ]

A casual relationship may be part-time, or for a limited time. It may or may not entail partner-exclusivity. In each case, the relationship's dominance in the lives of those involved is being voluntarily limited, and there is usually a sense that the relationship is intended to endure only so long as both parties wish it to. Casual relationships sometimes include mutual support, affection and enjoyment, which underpin other forms of loving relationship. [ citation needed ]

People in a casual sexual relationship are sometimes referred to as "friends with benefits", but the terms may differ in that the latter term carries less of the implication of relations beyond sexual activity. A one-night stand is also different, as a casual sexual relationship extends beyond a single sexual encounter. Nonetheless, these concepts are similar to a casual sexual relationship in that the sex is generally focused on fulfilling sexual desires rather than romantic/emotional needs. [ citation needed ]

Extreme Jealousy

Unreasonable or unfounded jealousy is a clear danger sign. Many abusers are afraid of losing their victim. Abusers justify their jealousy by saying they love someone so much that they don't want to lose them. A dominant personality simply makes their opinions known without condescending behavior.

Isolation

In a dominant relationship, your partner will be concerned with the people that you associate with but will not prohibit it. An abusive mate will criticize your friends and family and try to sever any connection you have with them. The goal is to keep you within his grasp, making you even more dependent.

Demeaning Behavior

Abusers will often put their partner down and tell them they are nothing and that no one else wants them. Dominators will try to make you feel at ease with the person that you are and help you to be more confident.

четверг, 22 января 2015 г.

Dating simulation games

Sub-genres [ edit ]

A screenshot from Lincity - NG . a city simulation game.

Construction and management simulation [ edit ]

Construction and management simulation (CMS) [ 1 ] is a type of simulation game in which players build, expand or manage fictional communities or projects with limited resources. [ 2 ] Strategy games sometimes incorporate CMS aspects into their game economy, as players must manage resources while expanding their project. But pure CMS games differ from strategy games in that "the player's goal is not to defeat an enemy, but to build something within the context of an ongoing process." [ 1 ] Games in this category are sometimes also called "management games". [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]

Life simulation [ edit ]

Dating sim

Dating sims (or dating simulations ) are a video game subgenre of simulation games. usually Japanese, with romantic elements. They are also sometimes put under the category of neoromance. The most common objective of dating sims is to date, usually choosing from among several characters, and to achieve a romantic relationship.

The term 'dating sim' is also often used incorrectly in English as a generic term for romance-driven games ( ren'ai games), a subject matter which is stereotypically associated with the visual novel genre. This can lead to confusion, as visual novels are considered a subgenre of adventure games and are not technically included in the dating sim genre. While the two genres often share a common visual presentation, dating sims are sometimes considered to be more statistically based than the "choose your own adventure " style of visual novels.

The technical definition of a dating simulation game, known as a romantic simulation game ( ?????????????. ren'ai shimyureshon gemu ? ) in Japan, can involve several technical elements such as a time limit, several statistics such as looks and charm which can be boosted through exercise, or an "attraction meter" which can increase or decrease depending on one's decisions.

Some original-English dating sims include SimGirls[1] , Ciao Bella and Summer Session .

Sub-genres [ edit ]

A screenshot from Lincity - NG . a city simulation game.

Construction and management simulation [ edit ]

Life simulation [ edit ]

Dating sim

Some original-English dating sims include SimGirls[1] , Ciao Bella and Summer Session .

вторник, 20 января 2015 г.

Dating tumblr

online dating is terrifying

Yeah, she must have daddy issues. A woman having sex with many people for her own pleasure? That can’t be

At least he recognized that he was making little effort?

Anonymous said: Its funny you include a dude answering yes a nuclear war would be exciting as a reason to shame him. You clearly don't know the definition of exciting. Go look it up.

All jokes aside.

I also just felt the need to say, because maybe people really don’t get it. But, when you type words like

nigger

jap

cunt

slut

mongrel

AND half breed

no one is joking. No one is making a poorly made joke. This is not a joke gone awry. There is no way to excuse it. It’s not funny. It’s not sarcasm.

If you are confused.

Those are not Google analytics. They are things that someone searched for on my blog, knowing that it would turn up nothing. It was someone who has read my blog for a long time, given they referenced something I haven’t written about in a while.

They were trying to hurt me.

They wanted me to see that.

I wasn’t even going to post that. But, I wanted people to see.

I…look. I get it. Everyone needs someone to be mad at when shit goes down on Tumblr. I don’t really understand fully, I guess, but that’s fine. People on Tumblr say not to tell them what to write and that these posts are their personal experiences. I, too, have personal experiences. And if my personal experience has to do with you, then I’ve got a right to talk about it on my own blog, right? If you can do it, I can do it, too. Too often, what starts as a direct disagreement over what someone has directly written (personal or not, we are responsible for what we write, no? If we wrote it, then we wrote it, right?) turns into a mudslinging fest of calling people names, accusing them of things, and removing the main issue at hand.

Yes. I had an issue with what PitROK said. Given it was a personal experience, and my blog is for my personal experiences, I wrote about it. PitROK didn’t like what I said. And that’s fine.

In fact, calling me a hypocrite, a bitch, telling her to take me down and all rallying behind her? Ok. Fair game, I guess, because you read her blog, you support her, and not me. Regardless of what I was trying to say, it doesn’t matter.

Do I think that the anons and such were out of line? Sure. Do I like it when people talk down to me because they don’t want to address the points I made? No. But, those are all ways to respond, and I didn’t see a point in reblogging again because that is how people chose to handle it.

It was mean, sure. It felt like it was undeserved. But, I’m a big girl. It didn’t really bother me.

But this? It’s what, 2012? And mongrel. That’s appropriate? How angry must I have made you for you to write that?

There is a line that we, as people, should never cross. No matter how angry, there are things we shouldn’t do or say.

And yet, you did. How sad for you.

I know what you were trying to do. And it wasn’t some crude attempt at a joke. It wasn’t even an attempt at humor. Anyone who has ever had a racial slur directed at them before knows why you did it.

Using The No Contact Rule to Get Your Ex Boyfriend Back

Getting your ex boyfriend back is all about one thing: making him miss you! No matter what happened, the present state of your relationship is not going to change until you have made your ex boyfriend miss you. By the time he starts reflecting on your relationship, thinking about the good times you had together, and recalling how it feels to hold you in his arms again ? that is when he will be ready to reverse the break up. Your aim now is to get him to that point by your actions and words.

As you read this article you’ll learn:

The most common mistakes people make after a breakup

What types of contact need to be avoided to make him miss you

Why cutting all contact works to your advantage

It’s Not Over Yet

The most common mistake we as humans make when we’re trying to get someone back after a breakup it to contact them incessantly because we think that they will move on without us overnight. However, the reality of the situation is much different than what we think and I’ll show you.

Imagine that you were the one who broke it off with your ex boyfriend? Do you think you would move on right away? Of course not! You need to factor in the point that you two had a history together and that the pain of the breakup is going to last for a while before either of you does anything else with anyone.

Click here to get your ex to notice you again

Types of Contact to Avoid with your Ex Boyfriend

Now that you know why your ex boyfriend isn’t going to run off with someone else right after the breakup, the next thing you need to do is to get him to think about you by not contacting him. The theory behind this is simple: We want what we can’t have or don’t currently have and so if your ex boyfriend doesn’t have any contact with you it stands to reason that at some point he will want to.

However you have to be strong and commit to not contacting him under any circumstances. This means:

No Text Messaging

No Facebook

No Twitter

No Phone Calls

No Messaging Through Friends

I think you get the picture. You need to cut all communication with him or else he’ll never start to miss you.

Does It Work?

Hell yeah this works! But it only works if you follow through on the no contact part. If you slip and drop him a tiny ‘how are you doing?’ text, then you’ve given the power during the breakup back to him. As your ex boyfriend looks around to find out how you are dealing with the break up, he should see nothing and I guarantee that after a few weeks of this your ex boyfriend is definitely going to come searching for you.

He will do it under the guise of A? calling to see how you’re doingA?, or probably he will make up some lame excuse to stop by your house and pick up something that belongs to him. He is going to be curious, and when he calls you will need to know what to say. Dealing with your ex boyfriend’s phone call correctly is an important part to winning him back.

Read more on how to deal with your ex boyfriend’s phone call

If your ex boyfriend suggests a place and time to meet up, do not completely commit. A? Yeah, I think that is probably okay. Call me next week though, and we will see. A?

Various things just occurred during the call. Initially, you crushed your ex’s expectations that you’d be very excited to hear from him. Therefore your ex boyfriend will get the feeling that you are not sweating him at all. In fact in his eyes you seemed to busy to be bothered with him which leaves him feeling like you’ve moved on. Are you going out someone else? How come you’re so busy? You ex boyfriend will think about these things, however since he is not your boyfriend any more it’s not really his place to ask.

The End Result

Your ex boyfriend is going to be blown away! He’s going to worry that you are totally over him and the relationship. He has absolutely no idea what is going on because it’s the exact opposite of what he expected. He expected that you’d come running after him and that you’d beg him to leave the door to the relationship open a crack in case he wanted to reconcile? Well guess what. You just slammed it shut in his face. You have put him out of his comfort zone, and made your ex boyfriend face the fact that he can’t play games with you at this moment. It is either he chooses to take you back (and hopes you will accept) or he risks losing you forever.

"what should I make the caption?"

"pussy destroyers"

left (tati) : http://lilgaylady. tumblr. com/ right (lana) :http://whitegirllana. tumblr. com/

My name is Leah (left) and I am in love with the most wonderful girl (Chelsea - right). We are currently separated by miles and circumstances, but we just started making YouTube videos of our time together!

This is a collage of me and my stellar girlfriend from the last two times she came to visit me.

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